1. INTRODUCTION 11.1 Terms and scope 11.2 Application areas 51.3 Growing importance of embedded systems 81.4 Structure of this book 92. SPECIFICATIONS 132.1 Requirements 132.2 Models of computation 162.3 StateCharts 182.3.1 Modeling of hierarchy 192.3.2 Timers 232.3.3 Edge labels and StateCharts semantics 242.3.4 Evaluation and extensions 262.4 General language characteristics 272.4.1 Synchronous and asynchronous languages 272.4.2 Process concepts 282.4.3 Synchronization and communication 282.4.4 Specifying timing 292.4.5 Using non-standard I/O devices 302.5 SDL 302.6 Petri nets 362.6.1 Introduction 362.6.2 Condition/event nets 402.6.3 Place/transition nets 402.6.4 Predicate/transition nets 422.6.5 Evaluation 442.7 Message Sequence Charts 442.8 UML 452.9 Process networks 502.9.1 Task graphs 502.9.2 Asynchronous message passing 532.9.3 Synchronous message passing 552.10 Java 582.11 VHDL 592.11.1 Introduction 592.11.2 Entities and architectures 602.11.3 Multi-valued logic and IEEE 1164 622.11.4 VHDL processes and simulation semantics 692.12 SystemC 732.13 Verilog and SystemVerilog 752.14 SpecC 762.15 Additional languages 772.16 Levels of hardware modeling 792.17 Language comparison 822.18 Dependability requirements 833. EMBEDDED SYSTEM HARDWARE 873.1 Introduction 873.2 Input 883.2.1 Sensors 883.2.2 Sample-and-hold circuits 903.2.3 A/D-converters 913.3 Communication 933.3.1 Requirements 943.3.2 Electrical robustness 953.3.3 Guaranteeing real-time behavior 963.3.4 Examples 973.4 Processing Units 983.4.1 Overview 983.4.2 Application-Specific Circuits (ASICs) 1003.4.3 Processors 1003.4.4 Reconfigurable Logic 1153.5 Memories 1183.6 Output 1203.6.1 D/A-converters 1213.6.2 Actuators 1224. EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEMS,MIDDLEWARE, AND SCHEDULING 1254.1 Prediction of execution times 1264.2 Scheduling in real-time systems 1274.2.1 Classification of scheduling algorithms 1284.2.2 Aperiodic scheduling 1314.2.3 Periodic scheduling 1354.2.4 Resource access protocols 1404.3 Embedded operating systems 1434.3.1 General requirements 1434.3.2 Real-time operating systems 1444.4 Middleware 1484.4.1 Real-time data bases 1484.4.2 Access to remote objects 1495. IMPLEMENTING EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:HARDWARE/SOFTWARE CODESIGN 1515.1 Task level concurrency management 1535.2 High-level optimizations 1575.2.1 Floating-point to fixed-point conversion 1575.2.2 Simple loop transformations 1595.2.3 Loop tiling/blocking 1605.2.4 Loop splitting 1635.2.5 Array folding 1655.3 Hardware/software partitioning 1675.3.1 Introduction 1675.3.2 COOL 1685.4 Compilers for embedded systems 1775.4.1 Introduction 1775.4.2 Energy-aware compilation 1785.4.3 Compilation for digital signal processors 1815.4.4 Compilation for multimedia processors 1845.4.5 Compilation for VLIW processors 1845.4.6 Compilation for network processors 1855.4.7Compiler generation, retargetable compiler and sdesign space exploration 1855.5 Voltage Scaling and Power Managementdesign 1865.5.1 Dynamic Voltage Scaling 1865.5.2 Dynamic power management (DPM) 1895.6 Actual design flows and tools 1905.6.1 SpecC methodology 1905.6.2 IMEC tool flow 1915.6.3 The COSYMA design flow 1945.6.4 Ptolemy II 1955.6.5 The OCTOPUS design flow 1966. VALIDATION 1996.1 Introduction 1996.2 Simulation 2006.3 Rapid Prototyping and Emulation 2016.4 Test 2016.4.1 Scope 2016.4.2 Design for testability 2026.4.3 Self-test programs 2056.5 Fault simulation 2066.6 Fault injection 2076.7 Risk- and dependability analysis 2076.8 Formal Verification 209References 212About the author 227List of Figures 229Index 236